Overview of the research area
 
The acquisition and development of Swedish as a second language is still a young area of research and education that has had both a practical and a theoretical motivation. It has helped teachers to understand the factors that determine whether instruction is successful and it has helped researchers to explore a number of issues of importance for theory building, in particular the relationship between the linguistic environment and the learner’s cognitive activity. In order to report on this vast area of research, we have formulated the following questions that have worked as a frame of reference for the information presented in this overview: 
What are the topics and research perspectives in the area of acquisition and development of Swedish as a second language? Which are the main organizations in the area of education of Swedish as a second language in Sweden? What is the available computer support for learning Swedish as a second language? What do we know about research on Swedish learner corpora? 
Having these questions as a background we organized the overview into four parts: 
1. Research in the area of acquisition and development of Swedish as a second language
2. Education in Swedish as a second language
3. Computer-assisted language learning in Swedish as a second language and 
4. The role of Swedish learner corpora in research on Swedish as a second language

1.	 Research in the area of Swedish as a second language 

The study of acquisition and development of Swedish as a second language is a vast area of research that develops from the early 70’s in Sweden. Two of the foundational research projects were SSM (Svenska som målspråk – Swedish as target language), conducted by Björn Hammarberg and Åke Viberg and focused on writing abilities of adult immigrants (Hammarberg and Viberg, 1976; 1977; 1979 and Viberg, 1979; 1980; 1981) and SPRINS (Språkutvecklingen hos invandrarbarn i Sverige – Language development in immigrant children in Sweden) that focused on written L2 Swedish development in bilingual children (Tingbjörn, 1976; Pitkänen, 1980). This work together with research conducted by Kenneth Hyltenstam (1979a; 1979b; 1983), have considerably contributed to the understanding of the type of language  that immigrants develop, their error types, their syntactic problems and, in particular, how immigrants acquire and use the Swedish grammar.  Research in this area has covered topics such as: language learning, teaching of Swedish for immigrants, language and social contact, interference and code-switching. Some researchers have focused on written language (cf. project SSM) and others on speech and in particular, on spontaneous talk (cf. Ulla-Britt Kotsinas, 1982). Of a particular interest was the study of the factors influencing the acquisition of lexical elements as well as the perception of the Swedish language by immigrants (Hyltenstam, 1979a). 
The work conducted by this early research has enormously contributed to the field and it has raised important questions such as: What are the basic principles according to which adult immigrants acquire the language of the social environment? Why is it that at some stages acquisition proceeds rapidly while at others it slows down? How do adult immigrants use specific structures language forms they have acquired at a certain time in their daily interaction? (Cf. Allwood et al., 1983; Strömqvist, 1983).  
Researchers in this area have not only studied the Swedish language of adult immigrants but also the development of the language of children (cf. SPRINS project; Allwood et al., 1982; Håkansson, 1987). They agree on the idea of viewing the acquisition and development of Swedish as a second language as a multifaceted process in which it is necessary to combine different perspectives. In this sense, the research work here reported mirrors the interaction of disciplines such as linguistic, sociology, pedagogy, didactic and the Swedish language.  In order to organize the contributions and issues raised in this field, we have distinguished three perspectives: linguistics, pedagogy and psycholinguistics, and socio-linguistics. 

The linguistic perspective
The linguistic perspective focuses the acquisition of the Swedish language system: its syntax, morphology, semantics. It may also extend to related areas of the development of Swedish as a second language such as socio-linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics and neuro-linguistics. The linguistic perspective is represented by the extensive research work conducted by K. Hyltenstam at the Center for Research on Bilingualism, Stockholm University; B. Hammarberg, Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University; Å. Viberg Department of Linguistics, Uppsala University, Sven Strömqvist, Lund University, U‑B. Kotsinas and G. Jansson, Department of Scandinavian languages, Stockholm University, as well as G. Håkansson, Department of Linguistics and Phonetics, Lund University. Since its foundation in 1988, the Center for Research on Bilingualism  has oriented its research  toward a better understanding of the phenomenon of bilingualism  from a theoretical as well as an applied perspective. Areas of research addressed include bilingualism in the family, bilingual education, Swedish as a second language for children and adults, second and foreign language teaching, interpreting and translation, language attrition in bilinguals, language maintenance and shift, language ideologies, minority language policies, and multilingualism and education in developing countries. Research studies also concerned adult immigrants' acquisition of Swedish as a Second Language, bilingualism among the elderly demented, bilingual development in school age children, Sami minority first language acquisition, and multilingualism and primary education in Mozambique. The Center provides courses in bilingualism and Swedish as a Second Language at the undergraduate level and offers a full Ph.D. program in bilingualism. This program is typically attended by both Swedish and international postgraduate students with diverse disciplinary and professional backgrounds. The Center cooperates with individual departments both at Stockholm University and at other universities in Sweden and internationally. It has an organizational and professional cooperation with the Rinkeby Language Research Institute, Stockholm.
The work conducted by Professor Åke Viberg at the Department of Linguistics, Uppsala University, represents an important contribution to the study of grammatical aspects of the Swedish language in non-native Swedish speakers. Although Viberg focuses on linguistic issues, his research also relates to pedagogical aspects of the acquisition of Swedish as a second language (Viberg, 1987). 
The work conducted by professor Sven Strömqvist, showed among other findings that the cognitive, perceptual and motor abilities of adult immigrants plays a role in the acquisition as well as the adult propensity to acquire the target language, their communicative needs, their attitudes to the target language, the society in which the target language is used, and their motivation. These factors are decisive factors in the acquisition of a second language  (Strömqvist, 1983). 
The work conducted by Professor Ulla-Britt Kotsinas, (1982, 1983, 1985) has contributed to a better understanding of the phenomenon of semantic overextension and overuse of certain words as well as the various syntactic and pragmatic factors that affect the use of the words. Kotsinas’s work is founded in the study of the spontaneous speech of immigrants having little education. Like Strömqvist, (1983) Kotsinas conducted studies with a particular interest in the language acquisition process of immigrants who are illiterate or who receive little instruction. In particular, her work showed the process in which the immigrants’ vocabulary develops and grows. Her work pointed out the overuse of interjections in specific situations, the lack of synonymous words and that every communicative intention seems to have only one expression. Kotsinas identified communicative strategies developed by immigrants such as avoidance and substitution as well as factors that may affect the learning of lexical elements. 
The work conducted by Gunilla Jansson has contributed to a better understanding of writing strategies developed by writers having Swedish as a second language. In her dissertation, Jansson (2000) investigated whether the first language rhetorical influence occurs when writing Swedish as a second language. Her work showed that patterns distinguishing immigrants from the control groups might be explained by different writing traditions and values in the writers' cultural background. 
Results from the linguistic perspective, focusing on written texts or speech, provide knowledge of the process of acquisition of Swedish as a second language developed by immigrants with little instruction. It would be interesting to contrast these findings with studies of the language development of immigrants having university background from their countries. This target group is curiously not represented in the study of the acquisition of Swedish as a second language. 

The pedagogical and psycholinguistic perspective 
The pedagogical perspective focuses on learner training and learner’s strategies and attitudes. This perspective is developed by Professor Inger Lindberg at the University of Gothenburg, Institute of Swedish as a second language, Monika Axelsson from the Department of Teacher Training at Uppsala University and Gunilla Jansson at the Department of Scandinavian Languages Stockholm University.  
The Institute of Swedish as a second language belongs to the Department of Swedish at the University of Gothenburg. Research conducted at the Institute of Swedish as a second language has, among others topics, investigated learning strategies and attitudes developed by second language learners who don’t succeed their “SFI” studies (Swedish for immigrants); studies on the acquisition of vocabulary and development of the language in bilingual students between seven and nine years old; studies on pedagogical models for education in schools receiving students with several languages. The extensive work conducted by professor Inger Lindberg is a great example of the knowledge produced in the field of Swedish as a second language from a pedagogical perspective. In particular, we refer to the work concerning the communicative strategies learners develop when trying to solve critical communication problems (cf. Axelsson et al., 1996). 
The work conducted by Monika Axelsson at the ILU (Institutionen för lärarutbildning – Department of Teacher Training, Uppsala University) on multi-ethnicity and education is another example of how the pedagogical perspective approaches the acquisition of the language. At present Axelsson runs a project investigating how education works out in the heterogeneous and multicultural society. This research entails language issues, in particular related to bilingualism and pedagogical concerns related to the study of classroom interaction. 
Studies recently initiated by Gunilla Jansson, at the Department of Scandinavian Languages at Stockholm University, focuses on collaborative strategies in the context of adult immigrants learning Swedish as a second language at the university. Her work raises pedagogical issues that are related to the role of the quality of the interaction in the learning process. Among other questions, this study investigates peer influence as a factor in the development of awareness and reflection on the Swedish language.  
The pedagogical together with the psycho-linguistic perspective have shed light on the question about factors affecting learning of lexical items in Swedish (Ringbom, 1983). We know from the work conducted within these approaches that the frequency of input words, the complexity and the communicative needs, affect profoundly the acquisition of lexical items. Avoidance strategies involving: topic avoidance, message abandonment and meaning replacement are also frequently developed during second language acquisition. (Ringbom, 1983). Strategies such as learning whole chunks, copying-imitating and learning words occurring in certain contexts are commonly developed by second language learners. 

The socio-linguistics perspective
The socio-linguistics perspective can be represented by the work carried out by three research institutions located in Stockholm and Borås. We refer to the Rinkeby Institute of Multilingual Research, the Multicultural Center and the Immigrant Institute. 
The Rinkeby institute of Multilingual Research carries out applied research and informative work in the field of individual and societal bilingualism. The field includes language learning, language teaching and bilingual education as well as multilingualism in housing areas, in working life and society at large. The point of departure for the research at the institute are the current issues and experiences in the multilingual areas of Stockholm today. The institute aims to develop methods of collaboration and knowledge between researchers and practitioners within areas such as preschool, school and adult education. Current research topics at the institute can be summarized as follows: 
• Future linguistic diversity in the Stockholm area: language repertoire, patterns of language use, language contact, change and preservation in Stockholm’s multilingual suburbs
• Bridges between the cultures of home and school – a study of language socialization of Somalian children at home and in preschool. In particular there is an interest in the development of discourse competence by bilingual Turkish-Swedish students, with a special focus on the text genres used at school and the development of instruments for observation and evaluation of students’ bilingual development
The Multicultural Center conducts ethnological research from an intercultural perspective. It main focus can be summarized into the following two research questions: How does immigration affect Swedish population and its institutions? How do people handle cultural diversity in everyday life? Central question within these topics are related to migration and health care. Since 1999, there exists a regional center for development oriented to schools and to the multicultural society. 
The Immigrant Institute, established in January 1973, is located in The House of Immigrants in Borås. The purpose of the institute is to work as a national documentation center on immigration. The library has an impressive amount of literature relating to issues concerning immigrants. One important collection is the collection of magazines published by immigrants in Sweden. The Immigrant Institute has, among other things, initiated quite an extensive documentation program in the field of immigration. More than one hundred books have been published since 1973. Current information about immigrants is given in the periodical “Invandrarrapport”.

2. Education in Swedish as a second language
Swedish as a second language is today an independent subject in primary and secondary education. The topic focuses both Swedish as a second language and learning Swedish from a second language perspective in secondary education. At the university, research and education in Swedish as a second language has grown up at the boundary of disciplines such as Linguistics, Phonetics, Scandinavian languages and research on bilingualism. For adult immigrants, there is a large offering in terms of fundamental courses. Among the different organizations providing education in Swedish, The National Center for studies in Swedish for immigrants and Swedish as a second language plays a fundamental and central role in the language training of immigrants. 

The National Center for studies in Swedish for immigrants and Swedish as a second language 
Education in Swedish as a second language for adult immigrants has been carried on from the mid-60’s and under different educational forms. In 1997 the Stockholm Institute of Education was commissioned by the Swedish government to create a national resource and development center for studies in Swedish for immigrants and Swedish as a second language. The National center for Swedish as second language opened in October 1998. Its headquarters are located in Stockholm although the activities of the National Center encompass the entire country. The National center conducts its activities in consultation with the Center for Research on Bilingualism at Stockholm University. The objectives of the center are : to assist teachers and local authorities in various ways in their work of encouraging and supporting language development among pre-school children both in regards to their mother tongue and the Swedish language,  to promote the implementation of curricula for Swedish as a second language in schools and the development of methods and forms of cooperation which encourage parallel linguistic and cognitive development, actively influence questions concerning further training of adult teachers, development of adult educational methodology, societal orientation within Swedish for Immigrants (SFI) and language training for people with limited educational backgrounds. 
“Komvux” and universities also provide free basic and advanced education in Swedish as a second language for adult immigrants. Unions and private companies offer a set of different kinds of courses given in different forms and for different language levels (cf. Folkuniversitetet, ABF, Medborgarskolan, Lernia, Berlitz, Amadeus). 

3. Computer-assisted language learning in Swedish as a second language
The perspectives presented above give much of the understanding one needs in order to penetrate the rich research field of the acquisition of Swedish as second language. However, we note that the study of the role of computer-assisted language learning, and – most important in our context – language technology in the process of acquisition and development of the language has been largely ignored. 
Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is the name of the discipline concerned with the development, deployment and evaluation of computer applications in language teaching and learning. This field has a history going back to the 1950s, and there is today a number of international journals and conferences dealing exclusively or predominantly with CALL, as well as a vast scholarly literature on the subject. Strangely enough, there has been very little contact between CALL practitioners and theoreticians – who tend to be language teachers, applied linguists, didacticians, instructional technologists, or the like – and researchers working in computational linguistics or language technology (CL/LT), normally having a background in theoretical linguistics or computer science. Thus, the CALL ‘killer applications’ have been email, chat and multimedia programs, developed and used by language teaching professionals with very little input from CL/LT research (Pennington, 1996; Chapelle, 1997, 1999, 2001; Levy, 1997 ; Salaberry, 1999). The only class of CL/LT which has had any kind of impact on the CALL field is corpus linguistics, and even in this case it has been the Humanities Computing kind of corpus linguistics, rather than the kind (sometimes called ‘Empirical Natural Language Processing’) pursued in CL/LT. On the other hand, in CL/LT in general, human language learning has not been seen as an application area worth pursuing. In the recent broad State of the art of human language technology overview edited by Cole et al. (1997), ‘language learning’ does not appear even once in the index, and there is no section on CALL. Certainly there are some exceptions to this general trend.  There have been occasional COLING (International Conference on Computational Linguistics) papers on ICALL, although few and far between. There is a research group in Groningen which has been working very actively on CL/LT-based CALL applications for quite some time (e.g., Nerbonne and Smit, 1996; Jager et al., 1998). The general situation has begun to change only in the last few years, however, with dedicated workshops on language learning applications of CL being arranged in connection with CL/LT conferences and the like (e.g., Olsen, 1999; Schulze et al., 1999; Efthimiou, 2000). 
We see it as self-evident that CL/LT has the potential for creating language learning applications which are more flexible in the range of linguistic input they can process and in the feedback they can provide to the learner and hence more easily adaptable to individual learning styles and proficiency levels. The master’s theses of Staerner (2001) and Öhrman (2000) indicate ways in which questions about design and use of language technology could be further developed. The current work carried out at KTH-Nada, IPLab within the project “The use of language tools in the context of learning Swedish as a second language” financed by Vetenskapsrådet is in this respect, promising. The “CrossCheck” project is a case in point, where the expectation is that by using state-of-the-art grammar checking technology with partly different rule sets for different categories of second language writers, we will be able to provide better assistance and better feedback both to those learning to write in Swedish as a second language and to those second language speakers who need to write in Swedish as part of their normal professional life. 

CALL in Swedish as a second language
In view of the foregoing,  it should come as no surprise that computer-assisted language learning applied to Swedish as a second language very rarely incorporates CL/LT. Instead, this field is dominated by fairly ‘traditional’ CALL applications:
(1)  vocabulary and grammar exercises:
	(1a) self-correcting exercises:
		(1a.1) multiple-choice exercises;
		(1a.2) cloze / fill-in-the-blank exercises;
	(1b) non-self-correcting exercises, where the learner herself is supposed to compare her own answer to the correct answer (displayed on demand);
(2)  reading exercises;
(3)  pronunciation exercises, using pitch contour (F0) visualization and other visualization of the speech waveform, or imitation with a small time-lag.
Some or all of these are often combined into a multimedia production, sometimes with the option of receiving updates through the Internet and some are completely web-based. But this does not change the underlying basic exercise formats or their limitations. There is also frequently an element of ‘facts/knowledge about Swedish culture and society’ integrated into the exercises, e.g. the pronunciation training program “Svenskt uttal i verkligheten” is built around a number of job-seeking dialogues. In particular the big publishing houses offer complete course packages, where the (CD or web-based) CALL application is one out of a number of integrated components (textbook, videos, exercise books, study guides for teachers and learners, etc.).

CALL in Swedish as a second language, including CL/LT
As far as we are aware of, there are at this time no CALL products, commercial or other, for Swedish as a second language,  where use is made of CL/LT. There is even not much research in this area, which perhaps is not surprising, given the general lack of collaboration between the CALL and CL/LT communities referred to above. 
Below follows a brief overview of research projects where the use of CL/LT in the teaching and learning of Swedish as a second language is pursued.
•	The Squirrel (Corpus based language technology for computer-assisted learning of Nordic languages) project funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers within the framework of the Nordic Language Technology Research Program 2000–2004, is a one-year feasibility study on corpus based tools for computer-assisted learning of Nordic languages; the primary target group of which should be (language teachers of) exchange students to Nordic universities and other institutions of higher education. The concrete result of Squirrel is a prototype web search service, allowing the user to locate texts for learners of Nordic languages, categorized as to their language, topic and difficulty level (cf. Borin et al 2001; Nilsson and Borin, forthcoming).
•	The use of language tools for writers in the context of learning Swedish as a second language is a one-year project funded by the Swedish Research Council. It aims at formulating a research agenda for investigating the use of computer-based language tools for writers in the context of learning a second language, from a pedagogical and human-computer interaction perspective. Focusing on the use of language technology, the project investigates questions such as: how should the language tool provide feedback to the user? In this context, feedback involves type of error indication, level of grammatical explanation related to the error committed, and alternative grammatical suggestions provided by the program. Another research question is the one pointing to the mode of interaction that should be implemented between the language program and the user/learner (Cerratto, 2001). 
•	The PaNoLa (Parsing Nordic Languages) is a two-year project funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers within the framework of the Nordic Language Technology Research Program 2000–2004, is a project aiming – among other things – at including Swedish in the VISL (Visual Interactive Syntax Learning) suite of grammar training applications. These applications use part of speech-tagged and parsed corpora (as well as free text supplied by the user) as the basis for arcade-style grammatical exercise computer games -“shoot down all adverbs in the sentences that fly across the screen”, and the like-. The parsing is done using the Constraint Grammar (CG) formalism (Karlsson et al. 1995) and the main task of the Swedish partner in the project, Torbjörn Lager, is to develop an interactive CG development environment for Swedish on top of his MUTBL system (Lager 1999).
•	At the Department of Swedish, University of Gothenburg, Sofie Johansson Kokkinakis, a Ph.D. student with a background in Computational Linguistics, is working closely together with Inger Lindberg, professor of Swedish as a second language. Their work consists of developing CL/LT-based applications for L2 Swedish learners and teachers. They explore technological and pedagogical issues arising in connection with this use of CL/LT. As part of her Ph.D. research, Johansson Kokkinakis has tagged and parsed Swedish texts in order to find and describe in formal terms grammatical errors made both by native speakers and L2 speakers of Swedish. 
•	IT-based collaborative learning in grammar is a three-year project funded by the Swedish Agency for Distance Education. It is a collaboration between the Linguistics departments at Uppsala and Stockholm, and the Department of Scandinavian Languages, the Department of African and Asian Languages, and the Department of Information Technology at Uppsala University. The aim of this project is to create a web-based environment for collaborative learning in basic grammar courses in Linguistics and language studies. Part of this environment will use CL/LT techniques, namely tools for writing formal grammars in conjunction with parsed Swedish corpora which will be used to directly evaluate the grammar rules proposed by students (Borin and Dahllöf, 1999).

4. The role of Swedish learner corpora in research on Swedish as a second language

Text material produced by second language learners has been collected for a long time on paper and used as the empirical basis of so-called ‘error analysis’ (e.g., Richards, 1974; Pitkänen, 1980) and for investigations of interlanguage (see Eubank et al., 1995). For our purposes, however, only computerized corpora are interesting, because of the much more varied investigations of interlanguage in large collections of learner language production – or learner corpora – made possible by the use of automatic – hence consistent – corpus annotation and analysis tools, compared to the tedious, error-prone and often inconsistent manual analysis, which as a rule will spot errors, but not tendencies, such as systematic overuse or underuse of lexical items or grammatical constructions in the learner language, compared to native production (Granger, 1998; Borin & Prütz, in preparation). 
The existing computerized Swedish learner corpora contain almost exclusively spoken language,  i.e. they consist of transcribed spoken L2 Swedish learner production. Apart from a small portion of the ASU corpus (50,000 words; see below), written L2 Swedish learner corpora do not exist, which is the main reason for the corpus building undertaken as part of the CrossCheck project. The more extensive L2 Swedish computerized corpus materials are the following:
(1)  	EALA (Ecology of adult language acquisition) is a corpus collected within a extensive European project investigating L2 acquisition in adult immigrants to a number of European countries. In each country, two native language groups were selected (and each of these groups was investigated in two countries). The study focused on non-instructed adult L2 acquisition in a population consisting of immigrants with low formal education, employed in blue-collar industry jobs. In Sweden, the groups investigated were native speakers of Finnish and Latin American Spanish. The corpus material consists of transcribed interviews and role plays, and it has formed the basis of a considerable amount of research, resulting in a large number of publications. (Allwood et al., 1983)
(2)  	ASU (Andraspråkets strukturutveckling) is a longitudinal corpus of adult learner Swedish. Collected in 1990–1993 (learner part) and 1998 (native part), the corpus contains mostly transcribed oral production by 10 learner subjects, speaking a number of different native languages, recorded at regular intervals over a period of 2–3 semesters, from the beginner stage to (in all cases except one) the passing of the National Proficiency Test required for admission to university studies. In addition to the oral material (100 interviews; 140,000 words), there is also a smaller written part (220 essays; 50,000 words), as well as corresponding native Swedish parts by 7 subjects (35 interviews; 97,000 words, and 70 essays; 25,000 words), (Hammarberg 1999). The ASU corpus has formed the basis of a number of studies of the development over time of L2 Swedish, by Hammarberg and others. Notably, it has been used in bachelor and master theses in Computational Linguistics with the aim of describing learner Swedish in a format that could be used by a grammar checking system such as Granska (e.g., Öhrman, 2000; Staerner 2001; Astudillo & Heuman, 2001). 
(3)  	The “Bilingual Children Corpora” consist of a number of corpus materials, where the oral production of Swedish by bilingual children having Swedish as their L2 has been recorded regularly over a longer period of time, with the children performing set tasks, such as conversation and narration. In parallel, Swedish L1 children have been recorded for some of the same tasks as the Swedish L2 children, thus forming control groups. The groups are: (1) preschool age (multilingual; 75 L2 recordings, 10 L1 recordings, over 1 year); (2) early school age (multilingual; 120 L2 recordings, 40 L1 recordings, over 4 years); (3) later school age (bilingual Finnish–Swedish; 80 Swedish recordings, 80 Finnish recordings, 40 monolingual recordings in each language, one group in grade 4 and grade 6, the other in grade 7 and grade 9). The material has been used by Viberg and others as the basis for a large number of studies on the development of L2 Swedish in bilingual children (Viberg, 2001).
These corpora are available for research. For conditions of use and details of how to get access to the materials, the respective compilers of the materials should be contacted: (1) EALA: Jens Alwood, Department of Linguistics, Gothenburg University; (2) ASU: Björn Hammarberg, Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University; (3) “Bilingual Children Corpora”: Åke Viberg, Department of Linguistics, Uppsala University.

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Research  projects 

•	IT-based collaborative learning in grammar project http://www.ling.uu.se/anjusaxena/distum.html

•	The Squirrel project http://www.informatics.sintef.no/projects/CbLTCallNordicLang/squirrel.html

•	The use of language tools for writers in the context of learning Swedish as a second language project
     http://iplab.nada.kth.se/iplab/jml.cgi/projectView.jml?name=VRutbildning

•	The PaNoLa project 
http://www.hf.uio.no/tekstlab/ prosjekter/PaNoLa.html